Othello essay

Choose a play which involves a tragic theme and show how the dramatist makes the play a moving experience for the audience. You may refer to structure, characterisation, key scene(s) or any other appropriate feature.

‘Othello’ by William Shakespeare is an example of a play which features the tragic theme of deceit. Othello’s downfall is caused by the machinations of the evil Iago. He is transformed from the valiant but modest soldier at the start of the play into a murderer, eaten up by jealousy at the end. In this essay, I will show how the playwright makes this a moving experience for the audience as Othello’s tragic flaw gradually overwhelms him – he possesses such personal integrity that he can’t see the flaws in those closest to him.

At the start of the play, in Act 1, Scene 2, we see that Othello is plain-talking, heroic, yet already too trusting of Iago, who enters the stage talking to him. Iago is onstage at the very beginning, and tells Rodrigo of his plan to undermine the Moor. In this way, we are prepared for the deception that unfolds. Yet Othello himself reveals that he thinks actions speak louder than words –

Let him do his spite:
My services which I have done the signiory
Shall out-tongue his complaints.

It is ironic that he places more value in words than deeds, when it is Iago’s words that will poison his love for Desdemona. He is confident that he will persuade Brabantio to accept their marriage as he has a high status in their society. On the other hand, Iago has been passed over for promotion and has heard rumours that Othello has slept with his wife, Emilia. It is significant that Iago reacts so strongly to rumours, which are the words of others. Othello’s seriousness and dignity are in contrast to Iago’s smutty racial jokes in the opening scenes; he has little time for intrigue or wordplay. Our early admiration for Othello helps make the play a moving experience as Iago is victorious in the end.

Iago is able to use Othello’s directness and noble past against him. He is also able to exploit the bravery and intelligence of Desdemona. She is another character who we admire early on, so her murder at the hands of her beloved husband adds to the shocking tragedy of the climax. When she first appears on stage in Act 1, Scene 3, she implores the council ‘To assist my simpleness.’ Asking for help is an assertive move that makes the men in the situations obliged to help her, as a ‘mere girl’.

So that, dear lords, if I be left behind,
A moth of peace, and he go to the war,
The rites for which I love him are bereft me

Describing herself as a ‘moth of peace’ suggests she is frail and helpless. A moth also has connotations of night and mystery, which might subtly explain her attraction to the foreign adventurer, Othello. Although Othello shows personal integrity, his description of the wooing of Desdemona in Act 1, Scene 3 is revealing. He regales her with tales of battles and adventures, including brushes with the fantastical Anthropophagi. They grew close through his storytelling. From this, we see that there is both an aspect of make-believe in their romance; and that Desdemona has a powerful ability to influence others. The audience’s sympathy for Desdemona adds to the feeling of loss when she dies.

The chemistry between Othello and Desdemona is exploited by Iago in the turning point of the play, Act 3, Scene 3, where the final tragedy is set in motion. Iago uses reverse-psychology to undermine Othello’s trust in Desdemona, by seemingly let slip ‘Ha! I like not that!’ He pretends to be reluctant to explain himself, but gradually he reveals his fake suspicions about Desdemona and Cassio. Cassio persuades Desdemona to entreat Othello to reinstate him, knowing her power of influence. Following this, Iago uses the handkerchief to convince his master of his wife’s betrayal. In this way, Iago turns Othello’s reliance on actions over words against him – he is unable to see that Iago has secret motivations.

The sense of tragedy is heightened towards the climax of the play, as Othello prepares to kill Desdemona. Even though he is in a murderous rage, he is concerned for her immortal soul and wants her to confess so that she can go to heaven when she dies. He has a soliloquy over her sleeping body -

Put out the light, and then put out the light:
If I quench thee, thou flaming minister,
I can again thy former light restore

Here, Othello sees Desdemona is a personification of the sun – ‘flaming minister’. This is in contrast to her own description of herself as a ‘moth’ earlier in the play. The sun gives life to everything, so killing her is like banishing life from the world. Even though Othello is eloquent in this stage of the action, actions are all-important to him – he wakes her up before he kills her. At the same time, he has become dependent on her words – she confesses even though she doesn’t know what she has done. In this way, Iago is finally victorious over the more noble Othello, because he has made him put faith in words, which can be deceiving.

Therefore I would argue that the tragedy of Othello comes about from the protagonist’s main flaw, that he is blind to the evil motivations and false words of those around him. Seeing his fall, and the death of his true love, is what makes the play a moving experience for the audience.

Othello essay plan

Choose a play which involves a tragic theme and show how the dramatist makes the play a moving experience for the audience. You may refer to structure, characterisation, key scene(s) or any other appropriate feature.

‘Othello’ by William Shakespeare is an example of a play which features the tragic theme of deceit.
• Othello’s downfall is caused by Iago’s manipulation.
• transformed from a valiant but modest soldier at the start of the play into a murderer at the end.
• Othello’s tragic flaw gradually overwhelms him – he possesses such personal integrity that he can’t see the flaws in those closest to him.

At the start of the play, in Act 1, Scene 2, we see that Othello is plain-talking, heroic, yet already too trusting of Iago, who enters the stage talking to him.
• Iago is onstage at the very beginning, and tells Rodrigo of his plan
• we are prepared for the deception that unfolds.
• Othello himself reveals that he thinks actions speak louder than words –

Let him do his spite:
My services which I have done the signiory
Shall out-tongue his complaints.

• he places more value in words than deeds - Iago’s words that will poison his love for Desdemona.
• confident that he will persuade Brabantio to accept their marriage
• Iago has been passed over for promotion and has heard rumours that Othello has slept with his wife, Emilia.
• Iago reacts strongly to rumours, which are the words of others.
• Othello’s seriousness and dignity are in contrast to Iago’s smutty racial jokes in the opening scenes;
• Our early admiration for Othello helps make the play a moving experience as Iago is victorious in the end.

Iago is able to use Othello’s directness and noble past against him. He is also able to exploit the bravery and intelligence of Desdemona.
• She is another character who we admire early on,
• When she first appears on stage in Act 1, Scene 3, she implores the council ‘To assist my simpleness.’ - makes the men in the situations obliged to help her
• Tells the men -

So that, dear lords, if I be left behind,
A moth of peace, and he go to the war,
The rites for which I love him are bereft me

• ‘moth of peace’ suggests she is frail and helpless.
• A moth also has connotations of night and mystery, which might subtly explain her attraction to the foreign adventurer, Othello.
• Othello’s description of the wooing of Desdemona in Act 1, Scene 3 – he tells her tales of his battles and adventures
• there is both an aspect of make-believe in their romance; and that Desdemona has a powerful ability to influence others
• The audience’s sympathy for Desdemona adds to the feeling of loss when she dies.

The chemistry between Othello and Desdemona is exploited by Iago in the turning point of the play, Act 3, Scene 3, where the final tragedy is set in motion.
• Iago uses reverse-psychology ‘Ha! I like not that!’
• He pretends to be reluctant to explain himself
• Cassio persuades Desdemona to entreat Othello to reinstate him, knowing her power of influence.
• Iago uses the handkerchief to convince his master of his wife’s betrayal; he turns Othello’s reliance on actions over words against him
• he is unable to see that Iago has secret motivations.

The sense of tragedy is heightened towards the climax of the play, as Othello prepares to kill Desdemona.
• Even though he is in a murderous rage, he is concerned for her immortal soul and wants her to confess so
• Othello’s soliloquy while she sleeps -

Put out the light, and then put out the light:
If I quench thee, thou flaming minister,
I can again thy former light restore

• Othello sees Desdemona is a personification of the sun – ‘flaming minister’
• in contrast to her own description of herself as a ‘moth’ earlier in the play; the sun gives life to everything, so killing her is like banishing life from the world.
• actions are all-important to Othello – he wakes her up before he kills her
• But he has become dependent on her words – she confesses even though she doesn’t know what she has done.
• Iago is finally victorious over the more noble Othello, because he has made him put faith in words, which can be deceiving.

Therefore I would argue that the tragedy of Othello comes about from the protagonist’s main flaw, that he is blind to the evil motivations and false words of those around him. Seeing his fall, and the death of his true love, is what makes the play a moving experience for the audience.

Macbeth Essay

Question -

Choose a play whose main theme is made clear early in the action. Show how the dramatist introduces the theme and discuss how successfully he or she goes on to develop it. In your answer you must refer closely to the text and to at least two of: theme, key scene(s), characterisation, climax, dialogue, or any other appropriate feature.


A play whose main theme is made clear early in the action is 'Macbeth' by William Shakespeare, as it highlights the conflict between good and evil, as Macbeth, a tragic hero, descends from being a brave, loyal solider to a tyrannical king. This main theme is conveyed through the use of key scenes, characterisation and language.

Shakespeare introduces the idea of good and evil by using the means of the supernatural. Three witches appear in the first scene, conveying the main theme immediately by using the words:

Fair is foul, and foul is fair

'Fair' is used for the idea of good while 'foul' is used to express evil and things which are immoral and against natural order. Also these words suggest how good and evil exist side by side, making it difficult to tell them apart. The idea of deception and disguise is used here to portray the struggle between good and evil.

Shakespeare develops the struggle between good and evil as Macbeth is praised by the captain for his role in the battle between Scotland and the invading armies:

For brave Macbeth – well he deserves that name –

Macbeth is introduced to us as the brave man who led King Duncan’s forces to victory against the traitorous Thane of Cawdor, Macdonwald and the King of Norway, in a battle that could have gone either way were it not for Macbeth’s leadership. This clearly shows that Macbeth is not fighting for himself but to save Scotland. At this point, it is proved that Macbeth is seen to be good. However, his first speech turns out to be connected with evil:

So foul and fair a day I have not seen

This makes the audience become suspicious of Macbeth as Macbeth may be considered of having the possibility of being evil. His speech mirrors the words of the witches, suggesting once again that he is questioning his own morals.

Shakespeare continues to show Macbeth’s moral ambiguity when he hears of the prophecies from the witches and a messenger comes to tell Macbeth that he has been granted Thane of Cawdor, he says:

Glamis, and Thane of Cawdor
The greatest is behind…
This supernatural soliciting
Cannot be ill, cannot be good.
If ill, why hath it given me earnest of success
Commencing in a truth

In this soliloquy, Macbeth knows that the witches have revealed some truth and starts to believe them. However, Macbeth wonders why something which is good or brings good luck can be evil or bad. This again hints out the idea of deception and how good and bad impulses might exist side by side in on person.

Shakespeare continues to develop the combat between good and evil by showing how using evil can take over the life of a good person. Once Macbeth hears that Malcolm, Duncan’s eldest son, is the successor to the throne, he thinks of murdering Duncan, who praised Macbeth “o valiant cousin, worthy gentleman”:

The Prince of Cumberland – that is a step,
On which I must fall down, or else o'erleap,
For in my way it lies. Stars hide your fires,
Let not light see my black and deep desires.
The eye wink at the hand; yet let that be,
Which the eye fears when it is done to see.

Macbeth knows that “chance” will not make him become king and that Malcolm is an obstacle to the throne which he must overcome. An extended image of the stars, not seeing what Macbeth is planning to do, is used in this soliloquy which is connected to the theme of night & evil. Also "eye wink at the hand" creates the idea of deception.

The battle between good and evil progresses as Lady Macbeth receives a letter from Macbeth. In this key scene, Lady Macbeth knows that Macbeth has ambition but is worried:

do I fear thy nature,
It is too full o' th' milk of human kindness
To catch the nearest way. Thou wouldst be great,
Art not without ambition, but without
The illness should attend it

Lady Macbeth knows Macbeth so well that she is sure that Macbeth’s inner goodness will prevent the kingship to be fulfilled. However, Lady Macbeth attempts to overcome this problem by calling the evil spirits, so that she is able to carry out the murder of Duncan:

Come you spirits
That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here,
And fill me from the crow to the toe top-full
Of direst cruelty; make thick my blood,
Stop up th’access and passage to remorse

There is no confusion in this soliloquy, as Lady Macbeth is clearly willing to do whatever is necessary to seize the throne. Her strength of purpose is contrasted with her husband’s tendency to waver. This speech shows the audience that Lady Macbeth is the real steel behind Macbeth and that her ambition will be strong enough to drive her husband forward.

Moreover, Macbeth considers whether he should kill Duncan, listing his good qualities.

First, as I am his kinsman and his subject,…
…Besides, this Duncan
Hath borne his faculties so meek, hath been
So clear in his great office

In this soliloquy, when Macbeth lists Duncan's noble qualities and the loyalty that he feels towards his king, we are reminded of how grave an outrage it is for the couple to slaughter their ruler while he is a guest in their house. At the same time, Macbeth fears that:

we still have judgement here, that we but teach
Bloody instructions which, being taught, return
To plague th' inventor

This foreshadows the way that his deed will eventually come back to haunt him. The imagery in this speech is dark and suggests that Macbeth is aware of how the murder would open the door to a dark and sinful world. At the same time, he admits that his only reason for committing murder is his "ambition" which suddenly seems an insufficient justification for the act. At the end, Macbeth resolves not to kill Duncan, but his resolve only lasts until his wife comes and rallies Macbeth on his behaviour.

Shakespeare continues to convey the theme of the struggle between good and evil as Macbeth becomes worried about his kingship and lists Banquo's good qualities:

Our fears in Banquo
Stick deep, and in his royalty of nature
Reigns that which would be feared…
…And to that dauntless temper of his mind,
He hath a wisdom that doth guide his valour

This clearly shows that Macbeth knows that Banquo has a good character, making people respect him, as well as not fearing anything. Macbeth knows that Banquo has a stronger spirit than Macbeth, since his has been weighed down by guilt. Despite these qualities, Macbeth insists on killing Banquo as he fears that Banquo's descendants may take the throne instead, due to the witches' prophecy:

Both of you
Know Banquo was your enemy…
…So is he mine; and in such bloody distance
That every minute of his being thrusts
Against my near'st of life;

Macbeth is clearly worried if the witches' prophecy may come true and is determined to prevent the prediction to happen. Macbeth knows that Banquo is so close that every minute Macbeth lives, Banquo is threatening his life. A fighting imagery has been used to describe the space between swordsmen, showing how close Banquo is, in threatening Macbeth. As a result of Banquo's murder, Shakespeare uses the means of the supernatural to haunt Macbeth on what he has done. In this key scene, a ghost of Banquo appears and Macbeth becomes terrified:

The time has been,
That when the brains were out, the man would die
And there an end. But now they rise again.
With twenty mortal murders on their crowns,
And push us from our stools. This is more strange
Than such a murder is

Macbeth believed that when a person would die then there would be an end to his life. However, in this situation, Macbeth knows that Banquo's descendants will still be kings. Macbeth is haunted by this conclusion. In spite of all this, Macbeth does not change his character, but instead plans to become more evil as he knows that there is no turning back:

I am in blood
Stepped in so far, that should I wade no more,
Returning were as tedious as go o'er.
Strange things I have in head, that will to hand;
Which must be acted ere there may be scanned.

Characterisation is used as Macbeth says that he is so used to evil deeds that it will be easier to continue the bloody course of action than to go back. The recurring imagery of blood is mentioned here to show how evil Macbeth has now become.

Most of all, at the end of the play, Macbeth now understands how something which is good, namely the kingship, can be evil or bad:

I have lived long enough. My way of life
Is fallen into the sear, the yellow leaf;
And that which should accompany old age,
As honour, love, obedience, troops of friends,
I must not look to have; but in their stead
Curses, not loud but deep, mouth-honour, breath
Which the poor heart would fain deny, and dare not.

Macbeth now realises that his life has dried up. He now regrets that he has no true friends, loyalty or honour due to his tyrannical behaviour. When Lady Macbeth dies, Macbeth reflects on the significance of his life:

Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow,
Creeps in this petty pace from day to day,
To the last syllable of recorded time;
And all our yesterdays have lighted fools
The way to dusty death.

Given the great love between them, his response is oddly muted, but it moves quickly without interruption into a speech of such pessimism and despair that the audience realises how completely his wife’s passing and the ruin of his power have undone Macbeth. His speech insists that there is no meaning or purpose in life. Rather, life is:

a tale
Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,
Signifying nothing.

In conclusion, Shakespeare conveys the theme of the struggle between good and evil effectively, through the tragic flaw of Macbeth. By his clever use of characterisation, key scenes and language, he manages to portray a clear message to the audience, making the play fascinating to watch.

My Comment

This is an in-depth discussion of the main themes of Macbeth and the relationships in the play. It's too long and has too many quotes for a 45-minute exam essay - normally I advise people sitting the Higher or Intermediate English exam to go in with three to five detailed quotes and aim for about six paragraphs, not including the introduction and conclusion.

Drama Textual Analysis

This post is for Higher and Intermediate pupils who are doing a drama text for their Textual Analysis NAB.

What you will be asked about -

1. Word choice – are the words used formal or informal? What does the word choice say about a character?
2. Imagery – simile, metaphor, personification. When a character uses an image when they talk, what does it say about them?
3. Sentence structure – rhetorical questions, long and short sentences, parenthesis, list, repetition, climax, antithesis
4. Tone – ironic, sarcastic, upbeat, downbeat, serious, light, nostalgic, humorous, pompous
5. Sound effects – alliteration and onomatopoeia
6. Register – high register (formal) or low register (informal). This example uses both: ‘My lords ladies and gentlemen … how y’doing?’
7. Stage directions – what do the actors do on stage? Are they standing, moving around … trying to stab each other!?
8. Props and costumes – what are the actors holding and wearing?
9. Setting – where does the scene take place? In a house? In a castle? Outer space?
10. Relationships – when two characters talk, one is always more important than the other. Which one is in charge?
11. Characterisation – how does a character talk? How do they behave on stage?

Analysing a line of dialogue in a play or script

This line is from the movie ‘Pulp Fiction’, a comedy thriller about gangsters in Los Angeles:

Normally both of you would be dead as fried chicken. But you happened to pull this while I'm in a transitional period.

It is said by Jules the hitman as he points a gun at Ringo the armed robber, and Ringo’s girlfriend. I took out some of the sweary words.

What can we say about this line?

Word choice –

• The scriptwriter has used colloquial language – ‘pull this’. This shows Jules is a tough character who speaks plainly. He is also happy to show Ringo that he is in charge of the situation – he uses a low register to show Ringo is of less importance than himself.
• This is contrasted with a high register – ‘transitional period’. This is a clever-sounding phrase which you wouldn’t expect Jules to say. It shows that he is thinking about himself and his life. This helps capture the audience’s attention and make Jules a complex character rather than just a thug.

Imagery – the simile ‘dead as fried chicken’ says a lot about Jules. For textual analysis, write down more than one thing if you can.
• Jules is a menacing character – fried chicken has been cooked as well as killed; this suggests Ringo will die in a gruesome way
• Jules is a common person – fried chicken is cheap food which you can buy anywhere.
• Jules holds life very cheaply – killing Ringo would be like eating chicken to him.

Stage directions, props, costumes and setting

Because this is a drama, we can say more about this scene in general. You may get questions about this when you do drama textual analysis -

Stage directions – Jules is pointing a gun at Ringo and they are sitting in a café. They might both be sitting totally still, or Ringo might be slowly backing away from Jules. It depends what the director and the actors decide, in order to make this scene exciting and full of tension.

Props and costumes – Jules is holding a gun, which will attract the attention of the audience and make them wonder what is going to happen. In this scene, Ringo is wearing ordinary casual wear and Jules is wearing shorts and a t-shirt, which might make the whole scene ironic, as he isn’t dressed for doing anything criminal.

Romeo and Juliet Essay - a play with a tragic theme

This essay gives a general answer to a 'theme' question from a higher English past paper.

Question -

Choose a play which involves a tragic theme and show how the dramatist makes the play a moving experience for the audience. You may refer to structure, characterisation, key scene(s) or any other appropriate feature.

Structure -

1. Introduction
2. The character of Romeo / the start of the play
3. Key scene - act 3, scene 1
4. Juliet’s monologue
5. Conclusion

‘Romeo and Juliet’ is one of Shakespeare’s best known stories and most celebrated tragedies. In this essay I will show how the structure and characterisation of the play make it a moving experience for an audience. The tragedy comes from the play’s twin themes of love and violence. The prologue suggests the ‘star-crossed lovers’ will meet a tragic end and in the first scene there is a brawl between the Capulet and Montague families; the Prince forbids any fighting in public and shortly after this, we are introduced to Romeo, who stands in contrast to the violent society of Verona.

Romeo represents the wide-eyed romantic who falls in love at first sight. who is pining for his love Rosalind. He has missed the violence in the street. Mercutio and Benvolio persuade him to attend the party at the Capulet’s house where he meets Juliet. The dialogue of the play emphasizes his rush of emotion at their first meeting: ‘She doth teach the torches to burn bright’. Comparing beauty to fire suggests that it can be a destructive force. In contrast, Mercutio is a more down-to-earth character; he makes rude jokes and puns at Romeo’s expense and mocks his friend for being naïve and idealistic.

The turning point of the play is act 3, scene 1. Before this, things have been going well for the lovers. In the previous scene, they were married, after the Nurse and Friar Benedict have given them advice and support. At the start of this scene, Mercutio mocks Benvolio for being a troublemaker. When Tybalt arrives, Mercutio turns his jesting to him. The tone of this dialogue is light rather than serious. When Romeo arrives, his attitude towards Tybalt is that of reconciliation.

The death of Mercutio is accidental. He is wounded under Romeo’s arm as he tries to break up the fight. It can be played by the actors as horseplay that goes wrong. Mercutio continues to joke as he dies, about his wound: ‘it is not as wide as a cellar door but it may suffice’. Comedy co-exists with tragedy through the course of the play; however, with the death of Mercutio, the tone of the play changes as the lovers launch their desperate plan.

The outcome of this scene is that the play ends in tragedy. The lovers make plans to elope but bad luck and rash decisions mean that they both end up committing suicide. Romeo is rash and idealistic, without the climate of violence created by the Capulets and Montagues, the plan to escape with Juliet may well have worked. It is therefore difficult to argue that the lovers were fated to die, even though this is the tone of the play’s prologue.

The events at the cemetery are foreshadowed by Juliet’s final monologue:

I'll call them back again to comfort me.
Nurse!- What should she do here?
My dismal scene I needs must act alone.

The Nurse is a stabilising influence upon the young lovers, but at this point in the play Juliet has rejected any further help, as she criticised her romance with Romeo. The audience is prepared for the final scene in the graveyard - she fears waking up with Tybalt’s corpse in her family tomb. This symbolizes that her own family may represent death to her – the world of brawling and one-upmanship is perhaps the factor that caused her to fall in love with Romeo in the first place. Even though it puts her in danger, Juliet would rather make her own decisions than do what is expected; and this leads to the final tragedy of the double suicide.

In these ways, ‘Romeo and Juliet’ is a tragic play which makes the audience think about issues of love and violence. The fact that it may have ended happily makes it a moving experience.

Romeo and Juliet Essay Plan - Fate

Another 'Romeo and Juliet' essay. This is answers a theme question from a higher exam paper. Is there a mystical force at work in the play? Or does the tragedy just come from bad luck?

Question -

Choose a play in which a main theme is made clear early in the action. Show how the dramatist introduces the theme and discuss how successfully he or she goes on to develop it.

Shakespeare’s ‘Romeo and Juliet’ is a tale about a ‘love at first sight’ which leads to tragedy; its impact comes from the two lovers escaping their violent world through the power of love, yet from the start of the play, there are hints that fate is against them. During the Renaissance, beliefs in supernatural powers affecting human events were commonplace and this is explored by various references in the play.

The prologue introduces the idea that ‘two star-crossed lovers take their life’, This suggests the events of the play have already been ‘written in the stars’. This theme is continued in Act I Scene V, where Romeo attends the Capulets masked ball to take his mind off his unrequited love for Rosaline. There he sees the daughter of his families sworn enemy, and the two fall in love at first sight. However, both are unaware of this fact at the time and come to learn it later on in the night: ‘O Romeo, Romeo, wherefore art thou Romeo?’ The repetition of ‘Romeo’ shows Juliets anguish, and her disbelief at the minute chances of Romeo being from her family’s worst enemies.

Perhaps the most evident development in the theme of fate comes in the turning point of the play, and key scene Act III Scene I. In this scene, Romeo tries to break up a fight between Mercutio and Tybalt, but tragically his mistake helps Tybalt slay Mercutio. Romeo then avenges Mercutio, after stating that ‘fiery eyed fury be my conduct now’. Romeo believes that this outcome was already predetermined by fate: ‘O, I am fortune’s fool.’ This shows that Romeo believes that fate was set to follow its course, and that he was simply fulfilling his fate. By having these unlikely “misadventured piteous overthrows” Shakespeare is able to manipulate and strictly enforce the theme of fate, which he picks up on again later in Act V.

Yes this also shows that Romeo is perhaps reluctant to take full responsibility for his actions. He shows naiveté in assuming that Tybalt will leave him in peace; the fact he has just married Tybalt’s cousin seems to blind his reason. This is a tension throughout the play – the references to fate suggest that supernatural forces are at work, yet the tragedy comes about because of human passions.

After Romeo’s exile, the Friar and Juliet form a plan to get him back in, but it seems once again that fate has intervened, against the hapless lovers: ‘A greater power than we can contradict/Hath thwarted our intents.’ The Friar believes there was nothing that anyone could do, and that fate was always going to run its course for better or for worse.

Upon hearing the news, Romeo decides to return from exile to be with Juliet in death. He tries to defy fate, exclaiming: ‘I defy you, stars!’ Once again, the idea of his fate already being written in the stars is included, and it also shows that Romeo is eager not to let fate prevail. However, Shakespeare's inclusion of this helps bring an effective conclusion to the theme of fate; in Romeo trying to defy his fate, he is in fact tragically fulfilling it. It emphasizes that Romeo’s rash impulsiveness is as much the agent of this tragedy as any mystical force.

And thus, Shakespeare effectively introduces and develops the theme of fate. By using a prologue to introduce the theme, and putting the emphasis on the theme of fate in the turning point, Shakespeare develops the theme in what I deem to be a successful and entertaining way.

My comment -

The theme of fate in 'Romeo and Juliet' is slightly harder to discuss than the theme of love and hate, or society. Although the playwright tells the audience that the stars have determined that the lovers will die a tragic death, and Romeo tells the audience that he is 'fortune's fool', in fact the whole play could have easily turned out differently if Romeo and Juliet had made better decisions. You can contrast this with 'MacBeth', where the whole play is built around a prophecy and all the action leads up to his defeat.

Personally, I think the two lovers were acting impulsively because they were surrounded by violence and early death. This explains Juliet's last monologue before taking the sleeping draught in act 4, scene 3. She thinks about all her relatives in the family mausoleum, including that of her young cousin, Tybalt. To her, living in Verona and being a Capulet means death; so, her only option is to fake her death in the hope that she can escape with her new husband.

The Crucible Essay - Introducing John Proctor

Question -

Choose a drama in which a character makes a strong impression early on in the action. Explain how their character becomes important to the theme of the play as a whole..

The character of John Proctor is established early on in Arthur Miller’s play ‘The Crucible’. Later on, the scene where he has his dramatic confrontation with Abigail in the courtroom is vital to the theme of hypocrisy. In this essay I will show how our first impressions of Proctor are confirmed over the course of the plot.

Proctor is a down-to-earth, forthright farmer. His ‘fiery’ temperament is established from entrance in Act one. Abigail’s friends leave the room as they are intimidated by him but when they are alone, she talks about the affair they had:

‘I have a sense for heat and you are no wintry man’

This both introduces the symbolism of heat and fire in the play, and gives a strong impression of his character. Heat imagery is used throughout the play to explore the nature of hypocrisy. A ‘Crucible’ suggests that the accused people of the town are trapped and under pressure, like a crucible on a fire. Proctor’s passionate nature makes him seek the truth but also causes his downfall.

When the audience first sees Proctor he has failed as a husband by having the affair; he is talking to Abigail rather than Elizabeth. But he turns Abigail away, and his devotion to Elizabeth is vital to the story. When the audience first sees him, Abigail describes her as a ‘snivelling woman’ and even Proctor says her justice ‘would freeze beer’ when they are talking about his affair. But later in the play, we learn her love for Proctor is stronger than her desire to tell the truth – she lies about the affair with Abigail to protect his reputation, causing their case to collapse. However, his belief that she would be honest even if it ruined his reputation shows his strong feelings towards her and faith in her.

In the first description of Proctor, he is a ‘sinner’ in his own eyes. He is an outsider – he built the church so he has respect within the community but he broke the rules by having an affair with Abigail. He doesn’t know the Ten Commandments and is criticised for failing to go to church. However, when he defends Elizabeth during her arrest, he says he will ‘fall like an ocean upon that court’. This is an allusion to the book of Exodus where the sea falls on the Pharaoh’s army. This suggests he is truly religious, in contrast to men like Parris who are conducting the witch trials for their own benefit.

In the courtroom scene, Proctor’s desire for truth becomes his downfall as the court is manipulated by Abigail. He is finally wiling to admit the affair and reveal himself as a hypocrite, yet this does not save him. Abigail’s reaction to the accusation is clever:

If I must answer that I will leave and I will not come back again.

The town people are reluctant to lose their show trial. Abigail realises that she can continue with the deception. In this way, she is part of the town’s values. The audience feels a sense of injustice at the hypocrisy on display. In the first scene, Abigail is sceptical about the church because of what Proctor has told her, but by the end of the play, she has become the centre of the witch trial.

At the end of the play, Proctor is executed along with the others but he refuses to confess. His name is more important than his life. This leaves the audience with a feeling of optimism despite the tragic conclusion. It shows that the truth can survive even when people die. In this way, our impression of him at the start of the play, as someone with integrity who has lost his way, is borne out by the tragic ending.

My Comment

Another 'Crucible' essay with a different emphasis. The way an author introduces a character is always important to a play or novel, and can set the tone for what happens later in the action. Note that you don't have to talk about the way Proctor is introduced for the entire essay.

English teachers may quibble that I don't mention a technique in the topic sentences of each paragraph. This could be fixed by inserting a technique word in the first sentence of each paragraph - for example, for 'In the courtroom scene ...' work in the word conflict. This would make the topic sentence something like: 'The playwright's use of conflict comes to the fore in the courtroom scene.'

Romeo and Juliet Essay Plan - a play with a tragic theme

This essay plan features topic sentences at the start of each paragraph, and a technique - characterisation, turning point, dramatic monologue and so on.

Question -

Choose a character who is at odds with their own family. Write about how the writer sets up this conflict and how it is effectively resolved by the end of the play.

Introduction - ‘Romeo and Juliet’ by William Shakespeare is an example of a play in which the main characters are at odds with their own families. In this essay, I will focus on Juliet. I will show how Shakespeare sets up this conflict and explain how it is resolved in the tragic ending. The main theme I would like to discuss is about the individual and society. In this play the lovers make decisions which go against the values of their society and lead to their own deaths.

Characterisation - Our first impressions of Juliet, in act 1, scene 3, are that she is down to earth and pragmatic.
- the play is set in the violent world of Verona; mention the brawl at the start
- the prologue tells us that the lovers are fated to die
- preparing for the party, the nurse seems closer to Nurse than her mother
- her mother enquires about marriage, but Juliet’s answers are polite
- ‘I’ll look to like, if looking, liking move’

Turning point - When she first meets Romeo in act 1, scene 5, Juliet’s character appears to change.
Our first impressions of Romeo are of an idealistic romantic.
- pining over Rosalind at the start; soon forgotten after he sees Juliet at the party scene
- the dialogue between the two lovers shows their intense attraction. It often takes the form of sonnet poems
-‘My only love sprung from my only hate!’ – after Juliet finds out he is a Montague
- this antithesis shows that she is aware of the difficulty of her situation; but for the rest of the play, she shows a determination to act
- at the end of the balcony scene, however, an actual plan is in place

Relationships - The Friar and the Nurse give the lovers guidance within the play.
- the Nurse acts as a go-between and gives the impression that there may be a solution for the lovers
- the Nurse and the Friar are not relatives of Romeo and Juliet, and they represent common sense and reason, while the Capulets and Montagues seem happy to let Verona be torn apart by fighting

Conflict - Juliet becomes estranged from the Nurse in act 3, scene 5
‘Thou and my bosom henceforth shall be twain’
This follows the death of Tybalt, Juliet’s engagement to Paris and her argument with Capulet.
- the Nurse compares Romeo to Paris and offends Juliet
- the Nurse is Juliet’s real ‘family’
- with the end of the Nurse’s influence, there is no-one to advise the lovers to proceed with caution
- the outcome – she takes the sleeping draught from the Friar and the play ends in tragedy.

Dramatic monologue - Juliet’s monologue in act 4, scene 3 prepares us for the tragic resolution.

I'll call them back again to comfort me.
Nurse!- What should she do here?
My dismal scene I needs must act alone.

- the audience is prepared for the final scene in the graveyard
- she fears waking up with Tybalt’s corpse in her family tomb
- this symbolizes that her own family may represent death to her
- even though it puts her in danger, Juliet would rather make her own decisions than do what is expected

Conclusion - In these ways, Juliet is a character who is at odds with her own family. Her decision to disown the Nurse, who in many ways is her real family, leads her to choose a course which leads to the tragic ending of the play. The lovers rebel against conventional thinking but die in the process; the play makes them into sacrifices in order to heal the violent society in which they live.

My comment -

In my opinion, Juliet is way more interesting than Romeo, who spends half the play moping and the other half making terrible decisions. A good Higher essay might comment on whether it was really fate that causes the lover's terrible deaths, or whether it was the violent society in which they grew up. Although Shakespeare tells the audience that fate is at work, during the play, it's the combination of Romeo's reckless idealism and plain bad luck which causes the tragedy.

See also http://pass-english-in-scotland.blogspot.com/search/label/romeo%20and%20juliet

The Crucible Essay Plan

A typical Higher English text. Arthur Miller's classic allegory for the McCarthy era features two memorable characters in Abigail and John Proctor. An essay will often focus on their relationship. Although Proctor is the moral centre of the play, Abigail's ruthless ambition makes her as much an anti-hero as a victim.

This plan gives you a topic sentence with a technique for the start of each paragraph.

Question -

Choose an exciting scene from a play you have studied. Describe the events leading up to this scene and what makes this scene important to the play as a whole.

Introduction: The scene where Proctor has his dramatic confrontation with Abigail in the courtroom is vital to Arthur Miller’s play ‘The Crucible.’ In this essay I will discuss the place of this scene in the plot and why I find it the most exciting in the play.

The character of John Proctor: Proctor’s fiery temperament is established early on in the play.
- the affair with Abigail
- Quote: ‘I have a sense for heat and you are no wintry man’
- Proctor represents the truth within the play
- He is an outsider – he built the church so he has respect within the community but he breaks the rules by having an affair with Abigail; and it is Abigail who he must face in court.

The theme of hypocrisy: The courtroom scene is where the theme of hypocrisy becomes most apparent to the audience.
- ‘The Crucible’ title – as if the people of the town are trapped and under pressure
- The ‘heat’ under the crucible is the repressed energy of girls like Abigail
- Heat imagery is used throughout the play – Proctor’s passion and the threat of ‘hell fire’
- The metaphor for the McCarthy era in America

The turning point: The tension is heightened before the courtroom scene with the arrest of Elizabeth. Proctor admonishes her accusers and shows himself to be an honourable man. He speaks the truth plainly while the other villagers lie out of self-interest:

I’ll tell you what’s walking Salem – vengeance is walking Salem … common vengeance writes the law

- He stands in contrast to the other characters and convinces Mary to testify.
- Yet in the courtroom scene, the townsfolk are manipulated by Abigail.

The key scene: The courtroom scene is the most exciting in the play because of the drama between Abigail and Proctor. He is finally wiling to admit the affair and reveal himself as a hypocrite, yet this does not save him. Abigail’s reaction to the accusation is clever:

If I must answer that I will leave and I will not come back again.

The town people are reluctant to lose their show trial. Abigail realises that she can continue with the deception. In this way, she is part of the town’s values. The audience feels a sense of injustice at the hypocrisy on display.

The climax: At the end of the play, Proctor is executed along with the others but he refuses to confess. His name is more important than his life. This left me with a feeling of optimism despite the tragic conclusion. It showed that the truth can survive even when people die.

Conclusion: Although Proctor is a hypocrite at the start of the play, he shows himself to be a force of truth; firstly by his eloquent defence of Elizabeth, then by refusing to compromise at the end.

Death Of A Salesman Essay Plan

A plan for a 45 minute essay for the Higher exam should fit comfortably on one side of an A4 sheet if its typed, or both sides if it's handwritten. I've chosen a fairly typical drama question. This plan features topic sentences and bullet points. You should probably include at least three longer quotes in your plan, and make sure you have memorized these before the exam.

Question -

Choose a play in which one scene or moment determines the fate of a main character. Explain fully why you think this is the key moment in the character’s fortunes. In your answer you must refer closely to the text and to at least two of: key scene, characterization, climax, dialogue, or any other appropriate feature.

A scene of a play which made a strong impression on me was the scene from ‘Death of a Salesman’ by Arthur Miller when Willy Loman meets his sons Biff and Happy in the restaurant. In this essay I will show why I think this is the key moment in the character’s fortunes.

In this scene, Willy’s problems come to a head.

• The start of the play: the first line of the play is ‘It’s OK. I came back.’
• His age and health
• He asked his boss, Howard, for a different position so that he did non have to travel – the boss let him go instead. Willy’s response was to tell a ‘story’
• He has ‘no stories left’ in his head – he can no longer fool himself or the people around him
• He refused a job offer from his neighbour Charley out of pride

At the start of the scene, we are reminded of the characters of Biff and Happy.

• They are drinking and trying to pick up some women
• Willy always thought Biff would be a great sportsman and sees his son as a success
• Biff failed to get the loan from his old boss, Oliver, for a sports goods company and stole a fountain pen instead
• Biff has realized that his whole life has been a lie, and tells Happy he wants to tell Willy the truth

This scene shows Biff trying to have an honest relationship with Willy.

• Biff is adamant he was a ‘shipping clerk’ instead of a ‘salesman’
• Willy has met Biff’s school friend, Bernard, who was not athletic but has turned out to be a success. Bernard tells Willy about how Biff had flunked maths, and Willy lied to Bernard about Biff’s success

This scene features flashbacks which tell us the truth about Willy.

• Biff catches Willy cheating on Linda with a woman: the audience sees him in a hotel room
• Shows the audience why Willy and Bif's relationship deteriorated, as well as Willy's declining mental state

The importance of this scene is that …

• Biff has tried to confront Willy with the reality of their lives
• We have learned that Willy is a liar and a cheat
• Willy returns home and begins planting grass seeds in his back yard, showing he is deluded
• Willy decides to commit suicide, to give his family money

Death Of A Salesman Essay

One of the most common Drama texts for Higher, 'Death of a Salesman' essays will nearly always focus on the restaurant scene and the confrontation between Willy and Biff. This essay could be written in 45-minutes for a Higher exam. I've chosen a fairly straightforward question.

Question -

Choose a play which involves a tragic theme and show how the dramatist makes the play a moving experience for the audience. You may refer to structure, characterisation, key scene(s) or any other appropriate feature.


‘Death of a Salesman’ by Arthur Miller has often been described as a modern tragedy. In this essay I will show how the playwright makes the downfall of the hapless Willy Loman a moving experience for the audience. Loman is an aging salesman at the end of his career. The first line of the play, ‘It’s alright. I came back’ is addressed to his long-suffering wife, Linda, who has always supported him despite his faults. He is too old to be driving the long distances from New York and in danger of crashing his car. The pay focuses on the last days of his life and his dysfunctional relationships with Linda and his sons.

Willy has always believed in his son Biff, thinking of him as a great sportsman and a success in life. However, the truth is that Biff is unable to keep a job or have a happy relationship with a woman. In Act I, Willy and his sons come up with a solution to the family’s problems. Biff agrees to visit a former employer to ask for a loan, so that he can set up a sporting goods company with Happy. At the same time, Willy will visit his boss in order to ask for work with less travelling. However, instead of letting Willy work from New York, the boss tells him Willy is no longer useful due to his age and health. At the same time, Biff fails to get the loan from his old boss and instead, steals his fountain pen and runs away.

The restaurant scene is where the problems of Willy’s life and relationships come to a head. At the start of the scene Biff and Happy are drinking and trying to ‘pick up’ two women. Biff has come to a crisis where he feels that he and Willy have never told the truth to one another. When Willy arrives, Biff tries to have a serious conversation with him:

Biff: Who ever said it, Pop? Who ever said I was a salesman?
Willy: Well, you were!

Biff is adamant that he was a shipping clerk rather than a salesman. However, Biff and Willy do not have the honest discussion that he wants. The father says ‘I haven’t got a story left in my head.’ Willy has spent his life trying to charm people and be ‘well liked’ so stories are important to who he is. This reminds the audience of the previous scene when Willy met his boss. He told the story of the old salesman who inspired him. However, in the play Willy is shown to be dishonest and self-deluded.

The tragedy of this situation is emphasized by the author’s use of flashbacks. As Biff begins to talk to Willy, voices from the past come from off stage. Soon, Willy’s memories take over and he relives a scene from his past. He is caught in a hotel room with a woman by Biff, who has travelled up to tell his father about why he flunked maths and was unable to graduate. This shows the audience how Biff lost respect for his father and become a failure in life. It also reveals Willy’s guilt and growing struggle with reality.

The consequences of the restaurant scene are that father and son have a confrontation, followed by Willy’s suicide. Biff admits that after he stole the fountain pen, he realized he did not want to live a city life and would be happier working on a farm. He tells his father ‘you were so busy filling my head with hot air …’. This suggests that Biff is prepared to reject his father’s values, of city living, money and ‘being liked’ in order to find some happiness when his father never did. Despite the confrontation, Biff tries to get his father to go to bed: instead Willy slips out and crashes his car. This shows that like Linda, he loves his father despite his faults and it emphasizes the tragedy of the ending.

In these ways, ‘Death of a Salesman’ is the story of an ordinary man who is unable to live up to his own fantasies, and whose relationships finally break down. The playwright uses characterization, flashbacks and the climax in order to make this a moving experience for the audience.